(Unit 3-Topic 1) Himalayan, Peninsular rivers & Major River Systems in India

Indian Geography (Unit 3-Topic 1)

Himalayan Rivers

The Himalayan mountain range or the Himalayas or Himalaya is a mountain range located in Asia, segregating the Tibetan Plateau from the Indian subcontinent. The Himalayan mountain range broadly includes the Hindu Kush, the Karakoram and other small mountain ranges that branch out from the Pamir Knot. Himalayan rivers are famous all over the world for their scenic beauties and tourist attractions located on their banks.

Himalayan Rivers: An overview

The Himalayan mountain range is home to the eight-thousanders (14 separate mountains that are 8,000 meters or above sea surface and include K2 (also known as the Savage Mountain or Godwin-Austen) and Mount Everest. Some of the famous rivers of the world including the Indus, Ganges, Yangtze, Brahmaputra, Salween, Mekong, Xunjiang Red River (Asia), Irrawaddy River, Chao Phraya, Syr Darya, Amu Darya, Tarim River and Yellow River have their sources in the Himalayas.

The collective catchment area of the Himalayan Rivers houses around 3 billion people (nearly 50% of the population of the world) in Bangladesh, Afghanistan, People's Republic of China, Bhutan, Nepal, India, Cambodia, Burma, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Thailand, Kyrgyzstan, Vietnam, Laos, Pakistan, and Malaysia.

Himalayan rivers are rich for their tourist attractions and cultural aspects. The mountain range covers approximately 15,000 glaciers, which function as the storehouse of approximately 12,000 km3 of freshwater. The Siachen Glacier located at the border of India and Pakistan is the second longest glacier in the world away from the glacial region of South Pole and North Pole. The length of Siachen glacier is 70 km. The forests on the banks of the Himalayan Rivers include Deodar, Pine, Oak, Fir, Birch, and Rhododendron.

Some of the other well-known glaciers include the Yamunotri and Gangotri (Uttarakhand), Baltoro and Biafo (Karakoram region), Nubra, Khumbu (Mount Everest region), and Zemu (Sikkim) glaciers.

The elevated areas of the Himalayan mountain range experience snowfalls round the year, regardless of their closeness to the tropical zones, and they are the sources for various big perennial rivers, majority of which merge into two big river systems:

(1) The western rivers merge into the Indus river basin and the Indus is the biggest among those rivers. The Indus originated in Tibet at the meeting point of Gar and Sengge rivers and runs towards the southwest across India and subsequently across Pakistan to the Arabian Sea. The river is fed by the Chenab, the Jhelum, the Beas, the Ravi, and the Sutlej rivers, among others.

(2) The majority of other rivers of the Himalayas sap the Ganges-Brahmaputra plains. The two major rivers are the Brahmaputra and the Ganges and the Yamuna, among other tributaries. The Brahmaputra starts off in the form of the Yarlung Tsangpo River in the western part of Tibet, and runs to the east across Tibet and west across the plateaus of Assam. The Brahmaputra and the Ganges join in Bangladesh, and pour into the Bay of Bengal across the biggest river delta in the world.

The eastern-most rivers of the Himalayas supply water to the Ayeyarwady river, which has its source in eastern Tibet and runs toward the south across Myanmar to pour into the Andaman Sea.

The Mekong, Salween, Huang He (Yellow River) and Yangtze, all have their sources in various areas of the Tibetan highland that are geographically separate from the Himalaya mountains, and are consequently not regarded as genuine rivers of the Himalayas. A number of geologists denote all the rivers jointly as the circum-Himalayan rivers.

Lately, geological scientists have observed a significant growth in the frequency of glacier retreat throughout the area due to universal weather variations. In spite of the fact that the outcome of this will not be identified for several years, it possibly could indicate calamity for the hundreds of millions of inhabitants who depend on the glaciers to provide for the north Indian riversthroughout the dry seasons.

The major Himalayan rivers are the Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Beas, Ravi, Saraswati, Sutlej, Ganga (or the Ganges), Yamuna, and Brahmaputra. All these rivers collectively cover an area of 2,250 km. The average width of these rivers is 200 km.

Five Sisters

Jhelum, Chenab, Beas, Ravi, and Sutlej are also known as The Five Sisters. Prior to the partition of India and creation of Pakistan, this system of rivers was one of the most spectacular aspects of the Indian subcontinent. Following the partition of India, approximately two third of the span of this river system was handed over to Pakistan. However, the rivers still gush through the Himalayas to form some of the most magnificent backdrops to be seen at any place in the world.

The Indus

The Indus River is one of the most important Himalayan rivers. The river originates from a place close to the Mansarovar Lake in Tibet. It joins River Gurtang at an elevation of 4,200 meters in the southeastern part of Ladakh. The picturesque Mansarovar Lake is the perfect instance of spectacular splendor. The Indus can be referred to as a trans Himalayan river. The river flows as per a north by northwest itinerary amid the lofty Ladakh mountain range to the north and the Zanskar Range to the south. Many urban colonies are located beside the Indus River in Ladakh such as Marol, Leh, Bunji, and Skardu.

The Jhelum

This river originates from a spring known as Verinag, which is located at a distance of 80 km to the south of Srinagar. The Jhelum River is famous all over the world for its scenic features and nine bridges. It is noted for its width and its water is mucky. The river runs across Srinagar. 

Chenab

Two rivers – Chandra and Bhaga join to form this river. The river is located in the Lahaul area of the state of Himachal Pradesh. The source of this river is situated at the foothills of the Himalayan mountain range in the Lahaul and Spiti districts of Himachal Pradesh. The picturesque lake of Chandra Tal has its origin in these rivers.

Ravi

The Ravi River runs through both India and Pakistan. The source of the river is located in the Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh. The town of Chamba is situated on a hill ridge on the right bank of the river. The area is popular for handiworks such as leather craft, embellished handkerchiefs, wooden sculptures, and silver.

Beas

The Beas River played a key role behind the formation of the Kullu and Kangra basins. It is known for its picturesque features. However, the Beas River primarily originates from an igloo like formation in the vicinity of Rohtang Pass in the north of Kullu in Pir Panjal range. The key thrust of the Beas River is to the south of Larji and subsequently to the west. In this area, it moves into the Mandi district and into Kangra valley. All the tributaries of the river are snow fed and perennial. The water level of Beas rises significantly at the time of monsoon and it results in floods in the adjoining regions. The Pong Dam has been built on the river to produce hydroelectric power. The water of the river has been redirected with a 53 km long passageway to the Sutlej at an area named Pandoh, located in the Mandi district.

Sutlej

The Sutlej River originates on the southern sides of the most consecrated mountains – Kailash, close to the most sacred lake of Mansarovar. After flowing extensively parallel to the Himalayan mountain ranges, it ultimately enters these ranges at the Shipki pass. Afterward, it flows through the Zanskar range, creating an oblique plunge through the mountains and discharges at a deep canyon at the foothills of the Kinner Kailash rocky formation. In Kinnaur district, the river flows side by side with the Hindustan-Tibet Road. At Karcham in Kinnaur, the Baspa River meets the Sutlej with its blue and crystal clear waters.

Saraswati

The Saraswati River is another name of the Ghaggar-Hakra River. This river flows partly in Pakistan and partly in India only during the monsoon. The Saraswati River is named as Ghaggar ahead of the Ottu Dam and the downriver from the dam is known as Hakra. Majority of researchers recognized the Ghaggar-Hakra River as the Sarasvati River in the Vedas. However, it is debated whether all citations of the Sarasvati should be accepted to denote this river. The recognition of the Sarasvati River in the Rig Vedas as the present-day Ghaggar-Hakra River was acknowledged by scholars like Max Müller, Christian Lassen, C.F. Oldham, Marc Aurel Stein, and Jane Macintosh.

The Hakra River is the dried-off waterway of a river in Pakistan, which is the extension of the Ghaggar River in India. On many occasions, yet not always, it transported the water of the Satluj during the Bronze age era. A number of urban colonies of the Indus Valley Civilization were discovered beside and within the riverbeds of the Ghaggar and Hakra Rivers.

India has a huge network of rivers, which are the lifeline of Indian society from time immemorial. Nearly all metropolitan regions in India or small towns are situated on the banks of these rivers.

From the prehistoric era, some of the rivers in India are regarded as holy and revered like god. Countless devotees from different parts of the world gather at their banks every year to pay respect. Himalayas, the house of snow, is known to be the source of some of the most sacred and longest rivers in India. These rivers can be categorized into perennially rain-fed and snow-fed rivers and therefore, incessantly flow round the year. The rivers of Himalaya outpour around 70% of their waters into the sea. A number of the rivers of the Himalayas join with the Bay of Bengal and at the same time, some rivers meet the Arabian sea.

The Himalayan mountain range is the origin of several major rivers. The rivers of the Himalayas offer a new attribute to the picturesque splendor of the Himalayan range. All the rivers form an important part of the life of the common people in those regions. These rivers assist in the process of afforestation and cultivation in these areas.

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Peninsular Rivers

The peninsular Rivers in India include the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Narmada, and Tapti or Tapi. Together they drain a significant portion of rural India. These rivers carry both religious and cultural significances in the lives of Indian people.

Peninsular Rivers in India

Peninsular India is sapped by five important river systems and they are as follows:

• Godavari
• Mahanadi
• Penner
• Krishna
• Cauvery

The geography and weather of Peninsular India are two superseding forcible checks influencing the rivers of Pensinsular India. Through influencing the flora and soil of the territory, the weather and geography become two important deciding elements of the sedimentological natures and the entire procedure of soil corrosion, silting, and transfer factors in every catchment area of the river.

The spare flora of the flat terrain has a lot of differences with the reasonably abundant flora of the river basins. Given below are the brief accounts of some important peninsular rivers in India:

Cauvery

The weather of the Cauvery River Valley is controlled by the rains during the monsoon months. The larger part of the yearly rainfall is caused because of the northeast monsoon. The distant northwestern portion of the catchment area features a perhumid weather, which moves to the east into moist subhumid, humid, semidry, and arid subhumid areas.

The geography of the catchment area is primarily created from Precambrian stones, mostly Peninsular granitic Gneiss, Dharwars, Closepet Granite, and the Charnockites (Krishnan, 1968). The metamorphic stones of the Dharwars are made up of slates, phyllites, biotite, schists with chlorite, staurolite, garnet, silllimanite, kyanite, and hornblende. Along with these stones, there are quartzite and greenstones. The upper levels of the catchment area feature the Closepet Granite, which is pink colored granite comprising mostly plagioclase, quartz, perthite, microcline, biotite, subordinate hornblende, apatite, rutile, seasonal fluorite and zircon.

On the major portion of the Cauvery River Valley, the peninsular gneisses and granites consist of hornblende granitic gneiss adamellite, biotite granitic gneiss, diorite, granodiorite, and pegmatite. The Charnockites are restricted to the Nilgiri Mountain Range in the middle of the catchment area. The Charnockites comprise olivine norites, gabbros, and pyroxene - hypersthene granulites.

Cretaceous deposits appear in the shoreline areas and comprise of coralline limestone, conglomeratic sandstone, and shale.

The Cauvery River is also known as the Kaveri River. It is one of the rivers, which is considered as holy by the Hindus. The source of the river is located at Talakaveri in the Kodagu District in Karnataka, in the Western Ghats Mountain Range. The river traverses the south Deccan terrain to the plains in the southeast. The river ultimately pours into the Bay of Bengal via two main mouths. The length of the Cauvery River is 765 km. 

Godavari

The Godavari is the longest and biggest river in South India. It is also named as the Dakshina Ganga. Following the Ganga, the Godavari is the second longest river in India. The river has its origin in Nashik District of Maharashtra. The river pours into the Bay of Bengal.

The weather of the Godavari River catchment area is extremely humid round the year and it is controlled by the southwest and northeast monsoons. The delta territory is semidry with a mean yearly precipitation of 1,042 mm. The highest temperature has been recorded in the month of May and it is 37.3°C. January is the coolest month with an average daily maximum temperature of 26.9°C and an average daily lowest temperature of 19.2°C. 

The higher levels of the Godavari catchment area are encompassed by the Deccan Traps, which is made up of minerals such as augite, hypersthene, enstatite, diopside, epidote, magnetite, zircon, biotite, apatite, rutile, and chlorite. The central portion of the valley is mostly made up of Dharwars and Archean sandstones comprising quartzites, phyllites, granites, and amphiboles. The downriver portion of the central valley is covered predominantly by the Vindhyan and Cuddapah metasediments along with stones of the Gondwana Cluster. The Vindhyan and Cuddapahs are made up of granites, quartzites, limestones, shales, and conglomerates.

The Gondwanas are mostly made up of silts with a certain degree of dense coal layers. The Eastern Ghats reign the lower portion of the catchment area and are mostly created from the Khondalites, which consist of quartz- garnet - feldspar - silllimanite gneisses, calc-granulites, quartzite, and charnockites. In the shoreline areas, the Tertiary Rajahmundry granites outgrow.

Mahanadi

The weather of the Mahanadi River basin in the north mostly features a subtropical weather. The average temperature during the summer months is approximately 29°C and the average temperature in the winter months is 21°C. Most of the rainfall takes place during July to September and the amount of rainfall ranges between 800 and 1200 mm. In the months of January and February, the rainfall is below 50 mm.

The Mahanadi River is a major River in eastern India . The river is 900 km long. Mahanadi traverses states like Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and Jharkhand. The catchment area of the river covers approximately 132,100 km2.

Krishna

The Krishna River is one of the important Rivers in South India . The river is also known as Krishnaveni. The Krishna traverses the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. The tributaries of the Krishna River are as follows: 

Andhra Pradesh

• Akeru River
• Munneru River
• Musi River
• Paleru River
• Vedavathi River
• Tungabhadra River
• Suvarnamukhi River
• Bhavanasi River in Kurnool District
• Avathi River
• Veda River
• Tunga River
• Varada River
• Bhadra River

Maharashtra and Karnataka

• Sina River
• Bhima River
• Mula-Mutha River
• Nira River
• Mutha River
• Mula River
• Kamini River
• Chandani River
• Bori River
• Moshi River
• Bhogwati River
• Man River
• Kundali River
• Indrayani River
• Ghod River
• Kumandala River
• Pavna River
• Bhama River
• Ghataprabha River
• Malaprabha River
• Koyna River
• Varma River
• Venna River

The weather of the catchment area of the Krishna River is controlled by the southwest monsoon, which is responsible for majority of the rainfall in the entire area. High water levels are noticed in the months of August to November and low water levels are noticed in the months of April to May at Vijayawada (AP). Varieties of weather conditions vary from arid subhumid to per humid in the west through semidry in the middle and eastern portions of the valley. You will find very dry weather in the south central portion of the valley.

The geographical features of the catchment area are controlled by the Deccan Traps in the northwestern region, and by the Cuddapah Group in the east. The Vindhyan Mountain Range (east central) and the Dharwars (southwest central) comprise an essential portion of the rocky outgrowths. The deltaic territory is mostly made up of Pleistocene to current substances.

Narmada

The Narmada is one of the most beautiful Rivers in Western India . The river has its source in the Amarkantak Hill. The river is also known as Rewa. The Narmada is the 5th biggest river in India. The river passes across the Vindhya and Satpura mountain ranges. The catchment areas of the river are spread out in states like Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat. The Narmada River has a lot of religious significance and a number of forests, anthropological sites, and wildlife parks are situated on the riverbanks.

Tapi

The Tapi or Tapti River is one of the main rivers of peninsular India. The river originates from the East Satpura Mountain Ranges, in south Madhya Pradesh. The river finishes its itinerary into the Gulf of Khambat, close to the Surat City in Gujarat. The river traverses the Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat states of India. There are a number of tourist attractions on the riverbanks of the Tapi River.

Peninsular Rivers are mostly fed by rain

The rivers on the Indian peninsular terrain are mostly rain fed. At the time of summer, their discharge is significantly decreased. Some of their tributaries even get dehydrated, only to be rejuvenated in the monsoon. The catchment area of the Godavari River in the peninsula is the biggest in India, covering a territory of about 10% of the entire nation.

India’s most sacred river is the Narmada. Tapti and Narmada runs almost parallely but pour themselves out in inverse ways. The two streams make the basin resourceful in fertile soil and teakwood jungles wrap most of the soil.

In spite of the fact that seaward rivers pour down the crests of the Western Ghat Mountain Ranges into the Arabian Sea in rapids during the monsoon, they stop to run once the monsoon is over. In west Rajasthan, torrents such as the Sambhar are mostly seasonal in nature, flowing into the interior valleys and saltwater bodies. The Luni in the Rann of Kutch is the only river that runs across the salty arid region.

Because of the severe summer in India, people can’t tour by tiny vessels and flatboats round the year even on huge rivers such as the Ganga and the Yamuna. In Kolkata, where the depth of Ganga is quite significant and the water doesn’t desiccate, Kidderpore works as a wharf for tiny vessels and ferryboats approaching from the Bay of Bengal.

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The Major River Systems in India

The rivers of India play a significant role in the lives of the Indian society. The river systems provide irrigation, drinking water, economical transportation, power, as well as grant livelihoods for a large number of population. This straightforwardly demonstrates that why all the major cities of India are positioned by the banks of the river.

Most of the rivers discharge their waters into the Bay of Bengal. Some of the rivers flow through the western part of the country and towards the east of the state of Himachal Pradesh merges into the Arabian Sea. The northern parts of the Aravalli range, some parts of Ladakh, and arid regions of the Thar Desert have inland drainage. All major rivers of India originate from one of the three main watersheds-

• The Himalaya and the Karakoram range
• The Chota Nagpur plateau and Vindhya and Satpura range
• The Western Ghats

The major river systems are

1. The Indus River System
2. The Brahmaputra River System
3. The Ganga River system
4. The Yamuna river System
5. The Narmada River System
6. The Tapi River System
7. The Godavari River System
8. The Krishna river system
9. The Cauvery River System
10. The Mahanadi River System

The Indus River System

The Indus arises from the northern slopes of the Kailash range in Tibet near Lake Manasarovar. It has a large number of tributaries in both India and Pakistan and has a total length of about 2897 km from the source to the point near Karachi where it falls into the Arabian Sea. It enters Indian Territory in Jammu and Kashmir by forming a picturesque gorge. In the Kashmir region, it joins with many tributaries – the Zaskar, the Shyok, the Nubra and the Hunza. It flows between the Ladakh Range and the Zaskar Range. It crosses the Himalayas through a 5181 m deep gorge near Attock, which is lying north of the Nanga Parbat. The major tributaries of the Indus River in India are Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas, and Sutlej.

The Brahmaputra River System

The Brahmaputra originates from Mansarovar Lake, which is also a source of the Indus and Sutlej.  It is a little longer than the Indus River. The most of its course lies outside India. It flows parallel to the Himalayas in the eastward direction. When it reaches Namcha Barwa, it takes a U-turn around it and enters India in the state of Arunachal Pradesh. Here it is known as Dihang River. In India, it flows through the states of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam and is connected by several tributaries. The Brahmaputra has a braided channel throughout most of its length in Assam.

The river is known as the Tsangpo in Tibet. It receives less volume of water and has less silt in the Tibet region. But in India, the river passes through a region of heavy precipitation and as such, the river carries large amount water during rainfall and a significant amount of silt. It is known for creating the calamity in Assam and Bangladesh.

Ganga River System

The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier. Before it reaches Devaprayag, the Mandakini, the Pindar, the Dhauliganga and the Bishenganga rivers merge into the Alaknanda and the Bheling drain into the Bhagirathi. The Pindar River rises from East Trishul and Nanda Devi unite with the Alaknanda at Karan Prayag. The Mandakini meets at Rudra Prayag. The water from both Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda flows in the name of the Ganga at Devaprayag.

The concept of Panch Prayag

1. Vishnuprayag: where the river Alaknanda meet river Dhauli Ganga
2. Nandprayag: where river Alaknanda meet river Nandakini
3. Karnaprayag: where river Alaknanda meet river Pinder
4. Rudraprayag: where river Alaknanda meet river Mandakini
5. Devprayag: where river Alaknanda meet river Bhagirathi -GANGA

The principle tributaries of the Ganga are Yamuna, Damodar, Sapt Kosi, Ram Ganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, and Son. The river after traveling a distance of 2525 km from its source meets the Bay of Bengal.

Yamuna River System

The Yamuna River is the largest tributary of the Ganga River. It originates from the Yamunotri glacier, at the Banderpoonch peak in Uttarakhand. The main tributaries joining the river include the Sin, Hindon, Betwa Ken and Chambal. The Tons is the largest tributary of the Yamuna. The catchment of the river extends to the states of Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.

The Narmada River System

The Narmada is a river located in the central India. It rises to the summit of the Amarkantak Hill in Madhya Pradesh state. It outlines the traditional frontier between North India and South India. It is one of the major rivers of peninsular India. Only the Narmada, the Tapti, and the Mahi rivers run from east to west. The river flows through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. It drains into the Arabian Sea in the Bharuch district of Gujarat.

The Tapi River System

It is a central Indian river. It is one of the most important rivers of peninsular India with the run from east to west. It originates in the Eastern Satpura Range of southern Madhya Pradesh state. It flows in a westward direction, draining some important historic places like Madhya Pradesh’s Nimar region, East Vidarbha region and Maharashtra’s Khandesh in the northwest corner of the Deccan Plateau and South Gujarat before draining into the Gulf of Cambay of the Arabian Sea. The River Basin of Tapi River lies mostly in eastern and northern districts Maharashtra state. The river also covers some districts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat as well. The principal tributaries of Tapi River are Waghur River, Aner River, Girna River, Purna River,  Panzara River and Bori River  .  

The Godavari River System

The Godavari River is the second longest course in India with brownish water. The river is often referred as the Dakshin (South) Ganga or Vriddh (Old) Ganga. It is a seasonal river, dried during the summers and widened during the monsoons. It river originates from Trimbakeshwar, near Nasik in Maharashtra. It flows southeast across south-central India through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa, and drains into the Bay of Bengal. The river forms a fertile delta at Rajahmundry.  The banks of this river have many pilgrimage sites, Nasik, Bhadrachalam, and Triyambak. Some of its tributaries include Pranahita (Combination of Penuganga and Warda), Indravati River, Bindusara, Sabari, and Manjira. The Asia’s largest rail-cum-road bridge which links Kovvur and Rajahmundry is located on the river Godavari. 

The Krishna river system

The Krishna is one of the longest rivers of India, which originates from Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra. It flows through Sangli and drains the sea in the Bay of Bengal. The river flows through the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.

Tungabhadra River is the main tributary which itself is formed by the Tunga and Bhadra rivers that originate in the Western Ghats. Dudhganga Rivers, Koyna, Bhima, Mallaprabha, Dindi, Ghataprabha, Warna, Yerla, and Musi are some of the other tributaries.

The Cauvery River System

 The Cauvery is also known as Dakshin Ganga.  It originates from Talakaveri located in the Western Ghats. It is a famous pilgrimage and tourist place in the Kodagu district of Karnataka. The headwaters of the river are in the Western Ghats range of Karnataka state, and from Karnataka through Tamil Nadu. The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. The river supports irrigation for agriculture and considered as the means of support of the ancient kingdoms and modern cities of South India.

The river has many tributaries called Arkavathy, Shimsha, Hemavati, Kapila, Shimsha, Honnuhole, Amaravati, Lakshmana Kabini, Lokapavani, Bhavani, Noyyal, and Tirtha.

The Mahanadi River System

The Mahanadi originates from the Satpura Range of central India and it is a river in the eastern India. It flows east to the Bay of Bengal. River drains of the state of Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Orissa. The largest dam, the Hirakud Dam is built on the river.